Document Type : Research Paper
Authors
Department of English, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of two different types of offline planning, namely cooperative and individual, on the oral proficiency of impulsive and reflective EFL learners. Accordingly, 114 intermediate learners studying at a private language school in Tehran were chosen nonrandomly through their performance on a Preliminary English Test (PET). The participants also filled out the Eysenck and Eysenck’s (1991) Impulsiveness Questionnaire (EIQ) through which they were categorized into two subgroups within each offline planning setting consisting of impulsive and reflective learners. All in all, there were four subgroups: 28 impulsive and 28 reflective learners undergoing the cooperative offline planning treatment, and 32 impulsive and 26 reflective learners experiencing the individual offline planning treatment. Following the 14-session treatment, the mean scores of all four groups on the speaking posttest were computed and a two-way ANOVA was run to test all the four hypotheses raised in the study. The results revealed that the effect of offline planning to a great degree depends on the cognitive learning style of the learners: while impulsive learners benefit more from cooperative offline planning, reflective ones prefer to perform the task individually.
Keywords
Main Subjects
Abbasi Dogolsara, S., Ahangari, S., & Seifoori, Z. (2019). The effects of task variation on the accuracy and complexity of Iranian EFL learners’ oral performance. Iranian Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 8(3), 15-33.
Abda, K. (2017). Assessing the factors that affect teaching speaking skills: The case of robe teachers’ college, English department second-year students. International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies, 3(5), 285-299.
Abdi, M., Eslami, H., & Zahedi, Y. (2012). The impact of pre-task planning on the fluency and accuracy of Iranian EFL learners’ oral performance. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 69(3), 2281-2288.
Ahangari, S., & Samadian, Z. (2014). The effect of cooperative learning activities on writing skills of Iranian EFL learners. Linguistics and Literature Studies, 2(4), 121-130.
Ahmadian, M. J., & Tavakoli, M. (2011) The effects of simultaneous use of careful online planning and task repetition on accuracy, complexity, and fluency in EFL learners’ oral production. Language Teaching Research, 15(2), 35-59.
Alonso, R. (2018). Speaking in a second language. Amsterdam, PA: John Benjamins.
Ashton-Hay, S. (2006) Constructivism and powerful learning environments: Create your own! Paper presented at the 9th International English Language Teaching Convention: The Fusion of Theory and Practice, Middle Eastern Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. Retrieved May 22, 2019, from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/17285/1/17285.pdf.
Bamanger, E. M., & Khalid Gashan, A. (2015). The effect of planning time on the fluency, accuracy, and complexity of EFL learners’ oral production. Journal of Educational Sciences, 27(1), 1-15.
Bijani, H., & Khabiri, M. (2017). The impact of raters’ and test-takers’ gender on oral proficiency assessment: A case of multifaceted Rasch analysis. Journal of Teaching Language Skills, 36(3), 1-32.
Birjandi, P., & Alipour, S. (2010). Comparing the effect of individual and group pre-task planning on EFL learners’ accuracy and complexity in speaking. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 1(4), 1-22.
Boyle, G. J., Mathews, G., & Saklofske, D. H. (2008). The Sage handbook of personality theory and assessment. London: Sage.
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Longman.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.
Celce-Murcia, M. (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2007). Personality and individual differences. Oxford: Blackwell.
Chuang, Y. Y. (2009). Foreign language speaking assessment: Taiwanese college English teachers’ scoring performance in the holistic and analytic rating methods. Asian EFL Journal, 11(1), 150-173.
Das, J. P., Kar, B. C, & Parrilla, R. K. (1996). Cognitive learning: The psychological basis of intelligent behavior. New Delhi, India: Sage.
Derakhshan, A., Nadikhalili, A., & Beheshti, F. (2016). Developing EFL learners’ speaking ability, accuracy, and fluency. English Language and Literature Studies, 6(2), 177-186.
Deutsch, M., Coleman, P., & Marcus, E. (2006). The handbook of conflict resolution. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Doboa, A. F. (2012). Collaborative writing tasks in the L2 classroom: Comparing group, pair, and individual work. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21(2), 4058-4066.
Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual differences in second language learning. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 589-630). Oxford: Blackwell.
Ehrman, M. E., & Leaver, B. L. (2003). Cognitive styles in the service of language learning. System, 31(3), 393-415.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (2005). Planning and task-based performance: Theory and research. In R. Ellis (Ed.). Planning and task performance in a second language (pp. 3-34). Amsterdam, PA: John Benjamins.
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S.B.G. (1991). Eysenck Personality Scales (EPS Adult). London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Farzaneh, N., & Nejadansari, D. (2014). Students’ attitude towards using cooperative learning for teaching reading comprehension. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(2), 287-292.
Fatemi, A. M., Tafazoli, N., & Ghanbarizadeh, M. (2015). The effect of pre-task planning and on-line planning on fluency ad accuracy in L2 oral production between intermediate learners in Iran. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 8(3), 80-89.
Folse, K. S. (2008). Six vocabulary activities for the English language classroom. English Teaching Forum, 46(3), 12-23.
Gairns, R., & Redman, S. (2008). Oxford word skills. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Goh, C. C. M., & Burns, A. (2012). Teaching speaking: A holistic approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Haghverdi, H. R., Biria, R., & Khalaji, H. R. (2013) The impact of task-planning and gender on the accuracy of narrations composed by Iranian EFL learners, Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4(1), 74-83.
Hedge, T. (2008). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jahanbakhsh, A. A., & Ajideh, P. (2018). Changing the learning culture of Iranians: An interplay between method and policy. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 26(3), 1883-1904.
Jamieson, J. (1992). The cognitive style of reflection/impulsivity and field independence/dependence and ESL success. Modern Language Journal, 76, 491-501.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2015). Cooperative learning: Improving university instruction by basing practice on validated theory. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25, 85-118.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (2008). Cooperation in the classroom (8th ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction.
Johnson, D., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1995). Cooperative learning and individual student achievement. In J. Pederson & A. Digby (Eds.), Secondary schools and cooperative learning (pp. 34-54). New York: Garland.
Kagan, C. (1994). Learning to cooperate, cooperating to learn. New York: Plenum Press.
Kang, S. (2018). The effects of individual vs. collaborative pre-task planning on Korean middle school learners’ English oral task performance under different task complexity. Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics, 18(3), 306-327.
Kawauchi, C. (2005). The effects of strategic planning on the oral narratives of learners with low and high intermediate proficiency. In R. Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language, (pp.143-164). Amsterdam, PA: John Benjamins.
Kessler, C. (1992). Cooperative language learning: A teacher’s resource book. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kolb, Y. A., & Kolb, A. D. (2005). Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4(2), 193-212.
Lantolf, J. (2000). Sociocultural theory and second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Latham-Koeing, C., & Oxendon, P. (2014). American file 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2016). Second language research methodology and design. New York: Routledge.
Mall-Amiri, B., & Navid Adham, L. (2013). The comparative effect of cooperative and competitive learning on impulsive and reflective EFL learners’ writing achievement. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 4(4), 429-449.
Marashi, H., & Dibah, P. (2013). The comparative effect of using competitive and cooperative learning on the oral proficiency of Iranian introvert and extrovert EFL learners. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4(3), 545-555.
Marashi, H., & Khatami, H. (2017). Using cooperative learning to boost creativity and motivation in language learning. Journal of Language and Translation, 7(1), 43-58.
Marashi, H., & Naddim, R. (2019). Using information and opinion gap tasks to improve extrovert and introvert learners’ speaking. Applied Research on English Language, 8(2), 187-206. DOI: 10.22108/are.2019.113273.1371.
Marashi, H., & Sanatipoor, S. (2015). Comparing competitive and cooperative content-based instruction in reading and writing classes. Journal of Studies in Learning and Teaching English, 4(2), 1-20.
Mehnert, U. (1998). The effects of different lengths of time for planning on second language performance, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20(3), 83-108.
Michońska-Stadnik, A. (2013). The relationship between impulsive/reflective cognitive style and success in grammar acquisition in English as a foreign language. In K. Drozdzial-Szelest & M. Pawlak (eds.) Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives on second language learning and teaching (pp. 137-149). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories (2nded.). London: Arnold.
Mohammadzadeh, M. A., Dabaghi, A., & Tavakoli, M. (2012) The effects of simultaneous use of pre-planning along the +/-Here-and-Now dimension on fluency, complexity, and accuracy of Iranian EFL learners’ written performance. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 2(3), 49-65.
Morovat, E. (2014). Effects of reflectivity/impulsivity on IELTS candidates’ band scores in the speaking module of the test. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1232-1239.
Rahimpour, M., & Nariman-Jahan, R. (2011) The effects of planning on writing narrative task performance with low and high EFL proficiency. English Language Teaching, 4(1), 120-127.
Nassaji, H., & Tian, J. (2010). Collaborative and individual output tasks and their effects on learning English phrasal verbs. Language Teaching Research, 14(3), 397-419.
Nation, I. S. P., & Macalister, J. (2010). Language curriculum design. New York: Routledge.
Nietfeld, J., & Bosma, A. (2003). Examining the self-regulation of impulsive and reflective response styles on academic tasks. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 118-140.
Nowicka, A., & Wilczyn´ska, W. (2011). Authenticity in oral communication of instructed L2 learners. In M. Pawlak, E. Waniek-Klimczak, & J. Majer (Eds.), Speaking and instructed foreign language acquisition (pp. 24-42). New York: Multilingual Matters.
Nunan, D. (2003). Second language teaching and learning. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Omer. N., & Attamimi, A. R. (2014). Effectiveness of cooperative learning in enhancing speaking skills and attitudes towards learning English. International Journal of Linguistics, 6(4), 27-45.
Ong, J., & Zhang, L. J. (2010). Effects of task complexity on the fluency and lexical complexity in EFL students’ argumentative writing. Journal of Second language Writing, 19, 218-233.
Ortega, L. (1999). Planning and focus on form in L2 oral performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(1), 109-148.
Ortega, L. (2005). What do learners plan? Learner-driven attention to form during pre-task planning. In R. Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language (pp. 77-109). Amsterdam, PA: John Benjamins.
Oxenden, C., Latham-Koeing, C., & Seligson. P. (2011). American English file (Vol. 3). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rahnama, M., Fatehi Rad, N., & Bagheri, H. (2016). Developing EFL learners’ speaking ability, accuracy, and fluency. ELT Voices – International Journal for Teachers of English, 6(1),1-7.
Rashtchi, M., & Khoshnevisan, B. (2008). Audiotaped dialogue journal: A technique to improve the speaking skill of Iranian EFL .earners. Journal of English Language Pedagogy and Practice, 1(3), 164-176.
Richards, J. C. (2008). Teaching listening and speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2002). Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Riddell, D. (2010). Teach English as a foreign language. London: Hodder Headline.
Shafiee, S., & Khavaran, R. S. (2016). Effects of cooperative learning on vocabulary achievement of reflective/impulsive Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 5(17), 11-24.
Shumway, S., Saunders, W., Stewardson, G., & Reeve, E. (2001). A comparison of interpersonal goal structures and their effect on group problem-solving performance and student attitudes toward their learning environment. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 38(3), 6-24.
Skehan, P., & Foster, P. (2008). Complexity, accuracy, fluency and lexis in task-based performance: A meta-analysis of the Ealing research. In S. Van Daele, A. Housen, F. Kuiken, M. Pierrard, & I Vedder (Eds.), Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in second language use, learning, and teaching (pp. 207-226). Brussels, Belgium: Contact Forum.
Slavin, R. E. (1992). Cooperative learning. In M. D. Gall, P. Joyce, & R. Walter (Eds.), Applying educational research: A practical guide (pp. 114-118). New York: Longman.
Smith, K. A. (2011). Cooperative learning: Lessons and insights from thirty years of championing a research-based innovative practice. Proceedings of the ASEE/JEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, No. 41. Rapid City, SD: ASEE.
Sprenger,T. M., & Wadt, M. P. S. (2008). Autonomy development and the classroom: Reviewing a course syllabus. DELTA, 24, 551-576.
Srivastava, P. (1997). Cognitive style in educational perspectives. New Delhi, India: Anmol.
Swain, M. (2010). Talking-it through: Languaging as a source of learning. In R. Batstone (Ed.), Sociocognitive perspectives on language use/learning (pp. 112-130). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2002). Talking it through: Two French immersion learners’ response to reformulation. International Journal of Educational Research, 37(2), 285-304.
Tavakoli, P., & Foster, P. (2008). Task design and second language performance: The effect of narrative type on learner output. Language Learning, 58(2), 439-473.
Tavakoli, P., & Skehan, P. (2005). Strategic planning, task structure, and performance testing. In R. Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language (pp. 239-273). Amsterdam, PA: John Benjamins.
Tuan, N. H., & Mai, T. N. (2015). Factors affecting students’ speaking performance. Asian Journal of Educational Research, 3(2), 8-23.
Tuan, A. T., & Neomy, S. (2007). Investigation group planning in preparation for oral presentations in an EFL class in Vietnam. RELC, 38(1), 104-124.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wang, T. (2007). The Comparison of the difficulties between cooperative learning and traditional teaching methods in college English teachers. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, 3(2), 24-30.
Weisstein, E., & Jacobson, D. (2009). Many sizes fit all: Considering multiple pathways to higher education. New England Journal of Higher Education
, 23(5), 15-17.
, 23(5), 15-17.
Wigglesworth, G. (1997). An investigation of planning time and proficiency level on oral test discourse. Language Testing, 14(2), 85-106.
Winke, P. M. (2007). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29(1), 143-144.
Xu, W. (2011). Learning styles and their implications in learning and teaching. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1(4), 413-416.
Yuan, F., & Ellis, R. (2003). The effects of pre-task planning and on-line planning on fluency, complexity and accuracy in L2 monologic oral production. Applied Linguistics, 24, 1-27.
Zahedi, M., & Tabatabaei, O. (2012). The effect of collaboration learning on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ oral skills and motivation. Advances in English Linguistics, 1(3), 56-60.
', './data/jtls/coversheet/cover_en.jpg'))