1 آموزش مدبرانه با استفاده از ضبط فیلم در آموزش زبان انگلیسی در ایران Reflective Teaching through Videotaping in an English Teaching Course in Iran https://jtls.shirazu.ac.ir/article_3746.html 10.22099/jtls.2016.3746 1 The purpose of this study was to investigate videotaping as a strategy for EFL teachers’ reflective teaching. To this end, eight participants were selected from a language institute in Iran and were under investigation for over a period of one month and a half. The data were triangulated from different sources: videotaping; self-reflection sheets; and semi-structured interviews. The analysis of in situdata suggested that there is a significant difference between teachers’ self-evaluations of their own teaching process at the beginning and end of the semester. Results also demonstrated that the contents of reflective teaching can be summarized into a framework including eight categories of communication patterns in the classroom, the affective climate of the classroom, classroom management, error correction, teacher’s physical appearance, teaching techniques and strategies, professional development, and teacher’s command of English. The current study may have some enticing implications for EFL teachers, materials developers, teacher trainers and syllabus designers. 0 هدف از این پژوهش، بررسی به‌کارگیری ضبط فیلم به عنوان روشی برای آموزش مدبرانه معلمان زبان انگلیسی می‌باشد. برای انجام این مطالعه، هشت مدرس زبان انگلیسی از یک موسسه آموزش زبان انگلیسی در ایران انتخاب شدند و به مدت یک ماه و نیم تحت بررسی قرار گرفتند. داده های مطالعه حاضر از منابع مختلفی شامل ضبط فیلم از جلسات آموزش، برگه‌های خودارزیابی و انجام مصاحبه جمع آوری شد. تجزیه و تحلیل داده های موجود حاکی از آن است که تفاوت معناداری در ارزیابی معلمان از فرآیند آموزش خود در آغاز و پایان ترم وجود دارد. نتایج همچنین نشان دهنده آن است که محتوای آموزش مدبرانه یا برخی موضوعات بررسی شده توسط معلمان ایرانی شامل الگوهای ارتباطی در کلاس درس، جو عاطفی کلاس، مدیریت کلاس، تصحیح خطا، ظاهر فیزیکی معلمان، روش ها و تکنیک های آموزش، پیشرفت حرفه ای معلمان و تسلط آن ها بر زبان انگلیسی می باشد. مفاهیم و معانی ضمنی مطالعه ی حاضر برای معلمان زبان انگلیسی، تولیدکنندگان مواد درسی و طراحان برنامه‌های آموزشی و تربیت معلم، جالب توجه است. 1 38 سعیده کاوشیان Saeedeh Kavoshian University of Isfahan Iran saiedeh.kavoshian@gmail.com سعید کتابی Saeed Ketabi University of Isfahan Iran s.ketabi@yahoo.com منصور توکلی Mansoor Tavakoli University of Isfahan Iran mr.tavakioli14@gmail.com reflection reflective teaching videotaping EFL teachers triangulation interview checklist Ahmadian, M. J., & Tavakoli, M. (2011). Exploring the utility of action research to investigate second-language classrooms as complex systems. Educational Action Research, 19(2), 121-136.##Akbari, R. (2007). Reflections on reflection: A critical appraisal of reflective practices in L2 teacher education. System, 2(35), 192-207.##Akcan, S. (2010).Watching teacher candidates watch themselves: reflections on a practicum program in Turkey. PROFILE Journal, 12(1), 33-45.##Baker, T. E., & Shahid, J. (2003). Helping preservice teachers focus on success for all learners through guided reflection. Paper presented at the annual meeting of Colleges for Teacher Education, New Orleans, LA.##Brophy, J. E. (Ed.). (2003). Using video in teacher education: Advances in research on teaching (Vol. 10). Greenwich, CT: JAI.##Brown, H. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th Ed.). USA, New York: Pearson Education.##Burns, A. (1999). Collaborative action research for English teachers. USA, New York: Cambridge University Press.##Cochran- Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (1999). Relationships of knowledge and practice: Teacher learning in communities. Review of Research in Education, 24(1), 249-305.##Cohen, J. W. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd Ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.##Copeland, W. D., Birmingham, C., de la Cruz, E., & Lewin, B. (1993). The reflective practitioner in teaching: Toward a research agenda. Teaching and Teacher Education, 9(4), 347-359.##Creswell, J. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.##Danielson, C. (1996). Enhancing professional practice: A framework for teaching. USA, Alexandria: ASCD.##Davis, A. (1970). Video-tapes in early childhood education. Education, 92(2), 79-81.##Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the reflective process. New York: Heath.##Doff, A. (2000). Teach English: A training course for teachers. UK: Cambridge University Press.##Dymond, S. K., & Bentz, J. L. (2006). Using digital videos to enhance teacher preparation. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, 29(2), 98-112.##Fadde, P.J., Aud, S., & Gilbert, S. (2009). Incorporating a video editing activity into a reflective teaching course for pre-service teachers. Action in Teacher Education, 31(1), 75-86.##Ferdowsi, M., & Afghari, A. (2015). Audio-recording as a stimulus for reflection in teachers’ performance. International Journal of Educational Investigation, 2(6), 1-9.##Griffths, V. (2000). The reflective dimension in teacher education. International Journal of Educational Research, 33(5), 539–555.##Guidry, J., van den Pol, R., Keeley, E., & Neilsen, S. (1996). Augmenting traditional assessment and information: The video share model. Topics in Early Childhood education. New York: Teachers College Press.##Harford, J., & MacRuairc, G. (2008). Engaging student teachers in meaningful reflective practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(7), 1884-1892.##Harford, J., MacRuairc, G., & McCartan, D. (2010). Lights, camera, reflection: using peer video to promote reflective dialogue among student teachers. Teacher Development, 14(1), 57-68. Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education. 11(1), 33-49.##Hewitt, J., Pedretti, E., Bencze, L., Vaillancourt, B. D., & Yoon, S. (2003). New applications for multimedia cases: Promoting reflective practice in pre-service teacher education. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 11(4), 483-500.##Ho, B., & Richards, J. C. (1993). Reflective thinking through teacher journal writing: Myths and realities. Prospect, A Journal of Australian TESOL, 8(3), 7-24.##Hsu, P.Y. (2008). Using videotaping and reflective journal writing to improve student- teachers’ performance in classroom. Chaoyang Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(2), 97-120.##Huang, H.W., & Hsu, P.Y. (2005). Reflective teaching through videotaping in an English teaching practicum course. Proceeding of 2005 International Conference and Workshop on TEFL and Applied Linguistics (pp. 210-216). Taiwan: Crane.##Huang, M-Sh. K. (2008). A case study of graduate teaching assistants’ reflections on their experiences of English language laboratory instructions, department English language, literature, and linguistics (Master thesis). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (No. 8853914). ##Jalilifar, A., & Nattaq, F. (2013). Reflective teaching in the context of a video club: Nurturing professional relationships and building a learner community. International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 1(2), 51-68.##Kavoshian, S., Ketabi, S., & Tavakoli, M. (2013). Self-evaluation through videotaping as an alternative mode of teaching supervision: A comparison of self and supervisor ratings. The Iranian EFL Journal, 9(2), 272-285.##Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. London/New York: Oxford University Press.##Kwo, O. (1996). Learning to teach English in Hong Kong classroom: Patterns of Reflection. In D. Freeman & J. C. Richards (Eds.), teacher learning in language teaching (295-319). New York: Cambridge University Press.##Lazaraton, A. (2001). Teaching oral skills. Teaching English as a second or foreign language, 3, 103-115.##Lee, G. C., & Wu, C. C. (2006). Enhancing the teaching experience of pre-service teachers through the use of videos in web-based computer-mediated communication (CMC). Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 43(4), 369-380.##Lee, H-J. (2005). Understanding and assessing preservice teachers’ reflective thinking. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(6), 699-715.##LeFevre, D. M. (2004). Designing for teacher learning: Video-based curriculum design. In J. Brophy (Ed.), Using video in teacher education (pp. 235-258). Amsterdam: Elsevier.##Liou, H. C. (2001). Reflective practice in a pre-service teacher education program for high school English teachers in Taiwan, ROC. System, 29(2), 197-208.##Little, M. (2006). Preparing nursing students to be health educators: personal knowing through performance and feedback workshops. The Journal of nursing education, 45(3), 131.##McLaughlin, D., & Hanifin, P. (1994). Empowering the novice: Promoting reflection in preservice teacher education. Educational Research, 41(1), 63-77.##Marsh, D. (1998). Comparing policy networks. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.##Marsh, B., & Mitchell, N. (2014). The role of video in teacher professional development. Teacher Development, 18(3), 403-417.##McDonough, K. (2006). Action research and the professional development of graduate teaching assistants. The Modern Language Journal, 90(1), 33-47.##Murphy, J. M. (2001). Reflective teaching in ELT. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd edition) (pp. 499-515). Heinle & Heinle, Boston, MA.##Orlova. N. (2009).Video recording as a Stimulus for Reflection in Pre-Service EFL Teacher Training. English Teaching Forum, 47(2), 30-35.##Pacheco, A. Q. (2011). Reflective Teaching and its impact on foreign language Teaching. Revista Electronica Actualidades Investigativas en Education, 5(3), 1-19.##Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.##Perry, G., & Talley, S. (2001). Online video case studies and teacher education. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 17(4), 26-31.##Powell, E. (2005). Conceptualizing and facilitating active learning: Teachers’ video stimulated reflective dialogues. Reflective Practice, 6(3), 407-418.##Qing, X. (2009). Reflective Teaching- an effective path for EFL teacher’s professional development. Canadian Social Science, 5(2), 35-40.##Rich, P., & Hannafin, M. (2008). Capturing and assessing evidence of student teacher inquiry: A case study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(6), 1426-1440.##Richards, J. C. (1991). Towards reflective teaching. The Teacher Trainer, 5(3), 4-8.##Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective teaching in second language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Richardson, V., & Kile, R. S. (1999). Learning from video cases. In M. A. Lundeberg, B. B. Levin, & H. L. Harrington (Eds.), Who learned what from cases and how? The research base for teaching and learning with cases (pp. 121–136). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.##Robinson, E. T. (1997). Applying the theory of reflective practice to the learner and the teacher: Perspective of a graduate student. Distributed by ERIC Clearinghouse, ED407394, Available at: http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED407394##Robinson, L., & Kelley, B. (2007). Developing reflective thought in preservice educators: Utilizing role plays and digital video. Journal of Special Education Technology, 22(2), 31-43.##Rogers. S. F., & Tucker, B. H. (1993). Video portfolios: Collaborations in literacy teaching assessment. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the College Reading Association.##Schon, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books Inc.##Schratz, M. (1992). Researching while teaching: An action research in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 17(1), 81-95.##Sherin, M. G. (2004). New perspectives on the role of video in teacher education. In J. Brophy (2003), Using video in teacher education (pp. 1-28). New York: Elsevier.##Sherin, M. G., & van Es, E. A. (2005). Using video to support teachers’ ability to notice classroom interactions. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 13(3), 475–491.##Song, K. H., & Catapano, S. (2008). Reflective professional development for urban teachers through videotaping and guided assessment. Journal of In-Service Education, 34(1), 75-95.##Stanley, C. (1998). A framework for teacher reflectivity. TESOL quarterly, 32(3), 584-591.##Sturges, M., & Reyna, J. (2010). Use of vimeo on-line video sharing services as a reflective tool in higher educational settings: A preliminary report. In ASCILITE-Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Annual Conference (Vol. 2010, No. 1, pp. 936-943).##Taylor, E. (2002). Research in your own classroom. In, J. C. Richards, & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice (pp. 397-403). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Thomson,W. S. (1992). Using Videotape as a supplement to traditional student teacher supervision. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 357 014).##Tripp, T., & Rich, P. (2012). Using video to analyze one’s own teaching. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(4), 678-704.##Wallace, M. J. (1991). Educating foreign language teachers: a reflective approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Wang, J., & Hartley, K. (2003). Video technology as a support for teacher education reform. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 11 (1), 105-138.##Yanping, P., & Jie, W. (2009, October). Research on reflective teaching and professional development of English teachers. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics San Antonio, TX, USA, (pp. 5194-5198).##Zeichner, K. M., & Liston, D. P. (1996). Reflective teaching: An Introduction. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.##

1 ارتقا توانایی زبان آموزان غیر انگلیسی زبان در نگارش متن های توصیفی از طریق ارائه بازخورد فرازبانی و ارائه آموزش گونه محور Enhancing Iranian EFL Learners’ Descriptive Writing Skill through Genre-based Instruction and Metalinguistic Feedback https://jtls.shirazu.ac.ir/article_3781.html 10.22099/jtls.2016.3781 1 English language teaching (ELT) writing practitioners have long attempted to improve EFL/ESL learners’ competence in writing with recourse to either instruction or feedback. Likewise, researchers have, to date, mainly focused on either of these treatments to enhance language learners’ composing ability. Which treatment leads to more significant improvements is, however, unclear. Moreover, of the various written genres, the genre of description seems to have been neglected by researchers. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the impact of metalinguistic feedback and scaffolded genre-based instruction through consciousness-raising tasks on EFL learners’ ability to write descriptive essays. To this aim, two groups, feedback group (n = 32) and instruction group (n = 32), participated in the present study. After pretesting the participants’ ability to compose descriptive essays, the researchers provided them with either written metalinguistic explanations on their compositions or genre-based instruction. The participants then took a posttest, the results of which revealed that the instruction group had made more significant improvements. 0 مدرسین نگارش در حوزه آموزش زبان انگلیسی در طی سالیان متمادی و به منظور افزایش مهارت نگارش زبان آموزان از یکی از دو روش آموزش و یا ارائه بازخورد بهره گرفته‌اند. به همین ترتیب، محققین این حوزه نیز تمرکز خود را معطوف یکی از این روش‌ها جهت ارتقا توانایی نوشتار در زبان‌آموزان کرده‌اند. علی‌رغم این مسئله، اینکه کدام روش به ارتقا بهتری منجر می‌گردد برای محققین و مدرسین نامشخص می‌باشد. همچنین در میان گونه‌های نگارش، به نظر می‌رسد نگارش توصیفی از طرف محققین مورد غفلت قرار گرفته باشد. بنابراین، این مطالعه به بررسی و مقایسه تأثیر بازخورد فرازبانی و تأثیر آموزش گونه محور بر توانایی زبان‌آموزان غیرانگلیسی زبان در نگارش متن‌های توصیفی پرداخت. بدین منظور، دو گروه (گروه بازخورد و گروه آموزش هر دو شامل 32 نفر زبان‌آموز) در این مطالعه شرکت کردند. پس از شرکت در پیش آزمون نگارش توصیفی، محققین این مطالعه اقدام به ارائه بازخورد فرازبانی بر روی متون توصیفی گروه اول و نیز ارائه آموزش گونه‌محور مرتبط با نگارش توصیفی کردند. پس از این مرحله، زبان‌آموزان در پس آزمون شرکت کردند که نتایج آن نشان داد که آموزش گونه‌محور تأثیرات بهتری در ارتقا توانایی نگارش توصیفی زبان‌آموزان داشته است. 39 68 - - Mohammad Khatib Department of English Language and Literature, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran Iran mkhatib27@yahoo.com مصطفی میرزایی Mostafa Mirzaii Allameh Tabataba&#039;i University Iran mustafa.mirzaei@yahoo.com EFL descriptive writing metalinguistic feedback genre-based instruction scaffolding consciousness-raising Ahn, H. (2012). Teaching writing skills based on a genre approach to L2 primary school students: An action research. English Language Teaching, 5(2), 2-16.##Alcon Soler, E. (2007). Fostering EFL learners’ awareness of requesting through explicit and implicit consciousness-raising tasks. In M. P. García Mayo (Ed.), Investigating tasks in formal language learning (pp. 221-241). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.##Binglan, Z., & Jia, C. (2010). The impact of teacher feedback on the long-term improvement in the accuracy of EFL student writing. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 33(2), 18-34.##Bitchener, J. (2008). Evidence in support of written corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17(2), 102-118.##Bitchener, J., & Ferris, D. (2012). Written corrective feedback in second language acquisition and second language writing. New York: Routledge.##Bitchener, J., & Knoch, U. (2015). Written corrective feedback studies: Approximate replication of Bitchener & Knoch (2010) and Van Beuningen, De Jong & Kuiken (2012). Language Teaching, 48(3), 405-414.##Bitchener, J., & Storch, N. (2015). Written corrective feedback for SLA: Theoretical perspectives and empirical research. London: Multilingual Matters.##Carstens, A. (2009). The effectiveness of genre-based approaches in teaching academic writing: Subject-specific versus cross-disciplinary emphases. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pretoria, South Africa, University of Pretoria.##Chaisiri, T. (2010). Implementing a genre pedagogy to the teaching of writing in a university context in Thailand. Language Education in Asia, 1(1), 181-199.##Crossly, S. (2007). A chronotopic approach to genre analysis: An exploratory study. English for Specific Purposes, 26, 4-24.##Daniels, H. (2007). Pedagogy. In H. Daniels, M. Cole & J. V. Wertsch (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Vygotsky (pp. 307-331). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Derakhshan, A., & Eslami, Z. (2015). The effect of consciousness-raising instruction on the pragmatic development of apology and request. TESL EJ, 18(4), 1-24.##Djiwandono, P. I. (2011). Applying consciousness-raising method to a writing class. Retrieved March 21, 2014, from http://litu.tu.ac.th/2012/images/litu/pdf/fllt_2011_proceedings-1.pdf##Ebadi, E. (2014). The effect of focused metalinguistic written corrective feedback on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ essay writing ability. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(4), 878-883.##Elashri, I. I. (2013). The effect of the genre-based approach to teaching writing on the EFL Al-Azhar secondary students’ writing skills and their attitudes towards writing. Retrieved May 12, 2015, from files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED539137.pdf##Ellis, R. (1993). Second language acquisition research: How does it help teachers? An interview with Rod Ellis. ELT Journal, 47(1), 3-11.##Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.##Ellis, R. (2002). Grammar teaching: Practice or consciousness-raising? In J. C. Richards & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice (pp. 167-174). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Ellis, R. (2009a). Corrective feedback and teacher development. Second Language Journal, 1(1), 3-18.##Ellis, R. (2009b). A typology of written corrective feedback types. ELT Journal, 2(2), 97-107.##Ellis, R. (2010). Does explicit instruction work? National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, 2(1), 3-22.##Ferris, D. R. (2004). The ‘grammar correction’ debate in L2 writing: Where are we, and where do we go from here? (and what do we do in the meantime...?). Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(1), 49-62.##Ferris, D. R. (2006). Does error feedback help student writers? New evidence on the short- and long-term effects of written error correction. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland (Eds.), Feedback in second language writing: Contexts and issues (pp. 81-104). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Hendricks, M. (2010). Consciousness-raising and prepositions. English Teaching Forum, 2(1), 24-29.##Henry, A. & Roseberry, R.L. (1999). Raising awareness of the generic structure and linguistic features of essay introductions. Language Awareness, 8(3-4), 190-200.##Henry, A. & Roseberry, R. L. (2001). A narrow-angled corpus analysis of moves and strategies of the genre: Letter of application. English for Specific Purposes, 20(2), 153-167.##Hyland, K. (2003). Second language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Hyland, K. (2007). Genre pedagogy: Language, literacy and L2 writing instruction. Journal of Second Language Writing, 16, 148-164.##Hyland, K. (2009). Teaching and researching writing. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.##Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006). Feedback on second language students’ writing. Language Teaching, 39, 77-95.##Lantolf, J. P. (Ed.). (2000). Sociocultural theory and second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.##Lantolf, J. P. (2011). The sociocultural approach to second language acquisition: Sociocultural theory, second language acquisition, and artificial L2 development. In D. Atkinson (Ed.), Alternative approaches to second language acquisition (pp. 73-94). New York: Routledge.##Lantolf, J. P., & Appel, G. (Eds.). (1994). Vygotskian approaches to second language research. Norwood NJ: Ablex.##Lantolf, J. P. & Poehner, M. E. (2013). The unfairness of equal treatment: Objectivity in L2 testing and dynamic assessment. Educational Research and Evaluation, 19(2-3), 141-157.##Lee, M. (2012). Teaching genre-based writing to Korean high school students at a basic level. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Wisconsin-river falls.##Liu, F. (2012). Genre analysis of American presidential inaugural speech. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(11), 2407-2411.##Luo, J., & Huang, T. Y. (2015). Genre-based analysis of American tourism brochures. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 3, 200-208.##Martin-Martin, P. (2013). The teaching of academic writing to English as a second language students: A functional genre-based approach. Revista de Lenguas para Fines Específicos, 19, 329-351.##Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2013). Second language learning theories. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.##Mohamed, N. (2004). Consciousness-raising tasks: A learner perspective. ELT Journal, 58(3), 228-237.##Mohammadi, M. (2009). Recast and metalinguistic feedback in teaching and learning L2 writing: A comparative study. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 6(3), 227-244.##Na, D. E. (2004). Genre-based approach to teaching writing. Retrieved June 9, 2013, from ctl.intimal.edu.my/ictl2007...2B-02 Paper%2092%20##Narita, R. (2012). The effects of pragmatic consciousness-raising activity on the development of pragmatic awareness and use of hearsay evidential markers for learners of Japanese as a foreign language. Journal of Pragmatics, 44(1), 1-29.##Nitta, R., & Gardner, S. (2005). Consciousness-raising and practice in ELT coursebooks. ELT Journal, 59(1), 3-13.##Nueva, J. C. (2010). Genre-based instruction: Its effect on students’ news article. Retrieved June 12, 2013, from http://www.fllt2013.org/private_folder/Proceeding/338.pdf##Poehner, M.E. (2012). The Zone of Proximal Development and the genesis of self-assessment. Modern Language Journal, 96(4), 610-622.##Read, S. (2010). A model for scaffolding writing instruction: IMSCI. The Reading Teacher, 64(1), 47-52.##Reppen, R. (2002). A genre-Based approach to content writing instruction. In J. C. Richards & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice (pp. 321-327). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Richards, J. C. (2002). 30 years of TEFL/TESL: A personal reflection. RELC Journal, 33(2), 1-36.##Rose, K. R. (1994). Pragmatic consciousness-Raising in an EFL context. Pragmatics and Language Learning, 5, 52-63.##Sharwood Smith, M. (1981). Consciousness-raising and the second language learner. Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 159-168.##Sheen, Y. (2007). The effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on ESL learners’ acquisition of articles. TESOL Quarterly, 41, 255-83.##Sheppard, K. (1992). Two feedback types: Do they make a difference? RELC Journal, 23(1), 103-110.##Swain, M. (2010). Talking-it through: Languaging as a source of learning. In R. Batstone (Ed.), Sociocognitive perspectives on language use/learning (pp. 112-130). Oxford: Oxford University Press.##Swain, M., Kinnear, P., & Steinman, L. (2011). Sociocultural theory in second language acquisition: An introduction through narratives. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.##Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1998). Interaction and second language learning: Two adolescent French immersion students working together. Modern Language Journal, 82(3), 320-337.##Thorne, S. L., & Lantolf, J. P. (2006). A linguistics of adaptable signs. In A. Pennycook & S. Makoni (Eds.), Disinventing language (pp. 21-37). Clevedon: Multicultural Matters.##Ting, S. H., Campbell, Y. M., Law, L., & Poh, H. H. (2013). Explanations without a purpose? Genre-based instruction and academic writing. Journal of Academic Language & Learning, 7(1), 26-39.##Troyan, F. J. (2013). Investigating a genre-based approach to writing in an elementary Spanish program. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburg.##Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes. Language Learning, 46(2), 327-369.##Truscott, J. (1999). The case for grammar correction in L2 writing classes: A response to Ferris. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8(1), 111-122.##Truscott, J. (2004). Evidence and conjecture on the effects of correction: A response to Chandler. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 337-343.##Tuan, L. T. (2011). Teaching writing through genre-based approach. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1(11), 1471-1478.##Vengadasamy, R. (2002). Responding to student writing: Motivate, not criticise. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 2(1), 21-30.##Vyatkina, N. (2011). Writing instruction and policies for written corrective feedback in the basic language sequence. Second Language Journal, 3(1), 63-92.##Williams, B., Brown, T., & Onsman, A. (2010). Exploratory factor analysis: A five-step guide for novices. Australasian Journal of Paramedicine, 8(3), 1-21. ##

1 آموزش مبتنی بر واژه‌واره‌ها و توسعه‌ی مهارت گفتاری داوطلبان آزمون آیلتس: به کارگیری رویکرد فرمول‌واره‌ای واژگانی در بخش‌های تک‌گویی و گفت‌وگو Lexis-Based Instruction and IELTS Candidates’ Development of L2 Speaking Ability: Use of Formulaicity in Monologic Versus Dialogic Task https://jtls.shirazu.ac.ir/article_3816.html 10.22099/jtls.2016.3816 1 Although lexis research (e.g., Lewis, 1997; Taguchi, 2008) has already evidenced the possibility of teaching formulaic sequences (FS), further research is still needed to examine the procedures or frameworks through which the approach can be applied and probe the second or foreign language (L2) areas where it demonstrates more relevance. This pretest-posttest quasi-experimental study aimed, firstly, to compare the effects of intensive and extensive lexis-based L2 instructions on the development of IELTS candidates’ speaking performance and, secondly, to explore whether different types of speaking tasks (i.e., monologic vs. dialogic) have any differential effects on the frequency of using FS by L2 learners. To this end, three intact classes including 40 L2 learners preparing themselves for IELTS in a language center in Iran were randomly assigned to one control and two experimental groups. The groups received the same amount of instruction, however differently, two receiving intensive and extensive instructions in FS (or unanalyzed chunks) and the other receiving conventional non-lexis instruction. The results revealed that both lexis groups outperformed the control group pointing to the effectiveness of both intensive and extensive lexis-based instructions to the learners’ development of speaking proficiency. Moreover, the results showed no significant difference between the effects of intensive and extensive types of lexis instructions upon IELTS candidates’ development of speaking performance. Further, it was revealed that dialogic tasks were more conducive to the FS use than monologic tasks. Finally, the implications for L2 theory and pedagogy are discussed. 0 اگر چه پژوهش در حوزه‌ی واژه‌واره‌ها (لویز، 1997؛ تاگوچی، 2008) امکان‌پذیر بودن آموزش مبتنی بر توالی‌های فرمولی واژگان (یا توالی‌های واژه‌ای فرمول‌واره) را قبلا تایید کرده است، با این وجود، بررسی روند یا چارچوب‌هایی که از طریق آن این رویکرد عملی شود، و نیز حوزه‌هایی از زبان دوم یا زبان خارجی که این نوع آموزش کاربرد موثرتری دارد، نیازمند پژوهش بیشتری است. این مطالعه‌ی با روش پیش‌آزمون-پس آزمون- مقایسه‌ای گروه بر آن بود تا ابتدا تاثیر دو نوع آموزش فشرده و گسترده ی واژه واره-محور را بر توسعه ی عملکرد گفتاری داوطلبان آزمون آیلتس بررسی کند، و دوم، این مطالعه بر آن بود تا بررسی کند که آیا نوع آزمون گفتاری آیلتس (تک‌گویی و گفت‌وگو) تاثیر معناداری بر تعداد توالی‌های فرمولی واژگان (یا توالی‌های واژه‌ای فرمول‌واره) مورد استفاده‌ی سخنوران دارد. در این راستا، سه کلاس آیلتس در یک مرکز زبان در ایران متشکل از40 داوطلب آزمون به صورت تصادفی به یک گروه شاهد و دو گروه آزمایش تخصیص یافتند. گروه‌ها به یک اندازه آموزش دریافت کردند، هرچند به شیوه‌ی متفاوت، دو گروه آزمایش دو نوع آموزش فشرده و گسترده‌ی توالی‌های فرمولی واژگان (یا تکه‌های تحلیل نشده) و گروه شاهد آموزش غیر واژه واره-محور دریافت کردند. نتایج نشان داد که هر دو گروه آزمایش به صورت معنادار از گروه شاهد بهتر عمل کردند، که بر مؤثربودن هر دو نوع آموزش فشرده و گسترده‌ی واژه واره-محور در ارتقای توانش گفتاری زبان‌آموزان اشاره دارد. همچنین مشخص شد که آزمون‌های نوع گفت‌وگو نسبت به تک‌گویی منجر به استفاده‌ی بیشتری از توالی‌های فرمولی شد. 69 98 عزیزالله میرزایی Azizullah Mirzaei Shahrekord University Iran mirzaei-a@lit.sku.ac.ir محمود هاشمیان Mahmood Hashemian Shahrekord University Iran m72h@hotmail.com مهشید عزیزی فارسانی Mahshid Azizi Farsani Shahrekord University Iran mahshid.azizifarsani@yahoo.com formulaic sequences (FS) lexis-based instruction speaking performance unanalyzed chunks Anderson, J. (2000). Cognitive psychology and its implications (5th Ed.). New York: Worth.##Bakhshizadeh, Y., Rahimi Domakani, M., & Rajaei, M. (2015). The effect of explicit instruction of formulaic sequences on oral proficiency improvement of young Iranian EFL students. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 3(10), 44-52.##Boers, F., Eyckmans, J., Kappel, J., Stengers, H., & Demecheleer, M. (2006). Formulaic sequences and perceived oral proficiency: Putting a lexical approach to the test. Language Teaching Research 10(3), 245-261.##Cullen, P., French, A., & Jakeman, V. (Ed.) (2014). The official Cambridge guide to IELTS. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and UCLES.##Corder, S. P. (1973). Introducing applied linguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin.##Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.##Ellis, N. (1998). Emergentism, connectionism, and language learning. Language Learning, 48(4), 631-64.##Ellis, N. (2003). Constructions, chunking, and connectionism: The emergence of second language structure. In C. Doughty & M. Long (Eds.), Handbook in SLA (pp. 63-103).Oxford: Blackwell.##Ellis, N. (2005). SLA the associative-cognitive creed. Paper presented at the 14th World Congress of Applied Linguistics. Madison, Wisconsin.##Hakuta, K. (1974). Prefabricated patterns and the emergence of structure in second language acquisition. Language Learning, 24, 287-298.##Keller, R. (1979). Gambits: Conversational strategy signals. Journal of Pragmatics, 3, 219-237.##Krashen, S. & Scarcella, R. (1978). On routines and patterns in language acquisition and performance. Language Learning, 28(2), 283-300.##Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach. The state of ELT and a way forward. Hove, UK: Language Teaching Publications.##Lewis, M. (1997). Implementing the lexical approach: Putting theory into practice. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications.##Lewis, M. (2000). Materials and resources for teaching collocation. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Teaching collocation: Further development in the lexical approach (pp. 186-204). Hove, UK: Language Teaching Publications.##Luoma, S. (2004). Assessing speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##McGuire, M. (2009). Formulaic sequences in English conversation: Improving spoken fluency in non-native speakers. Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Denton, TX: University of North Texas, Denton, Texas.##Mirzaei, A., Rahimi Domakani, M., & Rahimi, S. (2016). Computerized lexis based instruction in EFL classrooms: Using multi-purpose LexisBOARD to teach L2 vocabulary. ReCALL, 28(1), 22-43.##Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Nattinger, J. R., & DeCarrico, J. S. (1992). Lexical phrases and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.##Pawley, A., & Syder, H. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: Native like selection and native-like fluency. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication (pp.191-226). London: Longman.##Peters, A. M. (1983). Units of language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Serrano, R., Stengers, H., & Housen, A. (2014). Acquisition of formulaic sequences in intensive and regular EFL programmes. Language Teaching Research, 1-18.##Schmitt, N. (Ed.). (2004). Formulaic sequences: Acquisition, processing, and use (Vol. 9). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.##Sinclair, J. (1991). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Taguchi, N. (2007). Chunk learning and the development of spoken discourse in a Japanese as a foreign language classroom. Language Teaching Research, 11(4), 433-457.##Taguchi, N. (2008). Building language blocks in L2 Japanese: Chunk learning and the development of complexity and fluency in spoken production. Foreign Language Annals, 41(1), 130-154.##Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Weinert, R. (2010) Formulaicity and usage-based language: Linguistic, psycholinguistic and acquisitional manifestations. In D. Wood (Ed.), Perspectives on formulaic language: Acquisition and communication (pp.1-20). London: Continuum.##Wong-Fillmore, L. (1976). The second time around: Cognitive and social strategies in second language acquisition. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.##Wood, D. (2002). Formulaic language in acquisition and production: Implications for teaching. TESL Canada Journal, 20(1), 1-15.##Wood, D. (2008). Mandarin Chinese speakers in a study abroad context: Does acquisition of formulaic sequences facilitate fluent speech in English. The East Asian Learner, 3(2), 43-62.##Wood, D. (2010). Formulaic language and second language speech fluency: Background, evidence and applications. London: Continuum.##Wray, A. (2002). Formulaic language and the lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Wray, A., & Fitzpatrick, T. (2008). Why can’t you just leave it alone? Deviations from memorized language as a gauge of native like competence. In F. Meunier & S, Granger (Eds.), Phraseology in foreign language learning and teaching (pp. 123-148). Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.##Wray, A., & Perkins, M. R. (2000). The functions of formulaic language: An integrated model. Language & Communication, 20(1), 1-28.##

1 آموزش خود‌سازماندهی خواندن از طریق اجرای یک مدل یادگیری خود‌سازماندهی‌شده: تاثیر آن بر خواندن تحت‌اللفظی و انتقادی در انگلیسی The Impact of Training EFL Learners in Self-Regulation of Reading on their EFL Literal and Critical Reading Comprehension: Implementing a Model https://jtls.shirazu.ac.ir/article_3788.html 10.22099/jtls.2016.3788 1 Self-regulation is the ability to regulate one’s thoughts and actions to attain goals. Accordingly, self-regulated learning (SRL) involves plans and behaviors to achieve learning goals. With this in mind, in this study we investigated whether training English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners on the basis of a Self-regulated Learning (SRL) model improved their literal and critical reading comprehension. The study also sought to find out whether the learners’ proficiency level could moderate the impact of self-regulation training. Two intact experimental groups were taught self-regulatory reading processes, while two control groups received the traditional, routine reading instruction. The data of the study were collected by College-Level Academic Skills Test (CLAST) reading sub-tests including both critical and literal reading comprehension parts. Statistical analyses showed that self-regulation instruction could significantly improve participants’ EFL literal and critical reading comprehension, but their proficiency level did not moderate the effectof self-regulation training. These findings can encourage EFL teachers to apply SRL strategies to reading tasks and activities. 0 خود‌سازماندهی‌ عبارت ‌است از توانایی تنظیم افکار و اعمال برای رسیدن به اهداف. بر این‌ اساس، یادگیری خود‌سازماندهی‌شده دربردارنده برنامه‌ها و رفتارهایی برای نیل‌ به اهداف یادگیری است. این مطالعه تأثیر آموزش یک مدل یادگیری خود‌سازماندهی‌شده به فراگیرندگان انگلیسی به‌عنوان زبان‌خارجی را برمهارت خواندن تحت‌اللفظی و انتقادی آنان بررسی‌می‌کند. هدف دیگر این تحقیق، بررسی این ‌نکته است که آیا سطح مهارت زبانی شرکت‌کنندگان می‌تواند اثر آموزش خود‌سازماندهی را تعدیل ‌کند. استراتژی‌های خود‌سازماندهی خواندن به دو گروه آزمایش آموزش‌ داده ‌شد، اما دو گروه کنترل، خواندن را به‌صورت سنتی و متداول آموزش‌ دیدند. داده‌های تحقیق ازطریق آزمون خواندن تست مهارت های علمی در سطح کالج (کلست) جمع‌آوری‌ شد که شامل دو بخش خواندن تحت‌اللفظی و انتقادی است. تحلیل آماری نشان‌ داد که آموزش خود‌سازماندهی خواندن‌ در انگلیسی می‌تواند خواندن تحت‌اللفظی و انتقادی را به‌طور قابل‌توجهی بهبود بخشد، اما سطح مهارت زبانی تاثیر آموزش خود‌سازماندهی را تعدیل ‌نمی‌کرد. این یافته‌ها می‌تواند انگیزه‌ای برای مدرسان باشد تا برای بهبود مهارت خواندن تحت‌اللفظی و انتقادی زبان‌آموزان از استراتژی‌های خود‌سازماندهی درکلاس استفاده‌کنند. 99 122 محبوبه مرشدیان Mahboobeh Morshedian PhD Candidate, Payame Noor University Iran m.morshedian@gmail.com - - Fatemeh Hemmati Assistant Professor, Payame Noor University Iran hematitefl@gmail.com الهه ستوده نما Elaheh Sotoudehnama Associate Professor, Alzahra University Iran esotoude@alzahra.ac.ir - - Hassan Soleimani Assistant Professor, Payame Noor University Iran arshia.soleimani@gmail.com self-regulation self-regulated learning EFL literal and critical reading comprehension language proficiency Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. Modern Language Journal 75(5), 460-472.##Ammar, A. (2009). The effects of self-regulated reading strategy development on the prospective EFL teachers’ critical reading skills and reading motivation. Journal of Education & Psychology (Aswan Faculty of Education), 1-33. Retrieved from http://repository.ksu.edu.sa/jspui/handle/123456789/4671##Aregu, B. B. (2013). A study of self-regulated learning strategies as redictors of critical reading. Educational Research and Reviews, 8(21), 1961-1965.##Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20(3), 463–494.##Cambridge ESOL. (2003). Cambridge certificate in advanced English 5 student’s book: Examination papers from the university of Cambridge ESOL examinations (CAE practice tests). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Carrell, P. L. (1988). SLA and classroom instruction: Reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 9(2), 223–242.##Chen, C. M, Wang, J. Y., & Chen, Y. C. (2014). Facilitating English-language reading performance by a digital reading annotation system with self- regulated learning mechanisms. Educational Technology & Society, 17(1), 102–114.##Cheng, E. C. K. (2011). The role of self-regulated learning in enhancing learning performance. The International Journal of Research and Review, 6(1), 1-16.##Cleary, T. J., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2004). Self-regulated empowerment program: A school program to enhance self-regulated and self-motivated cycles of student learning. Psychology in the Schools, 41(5), 537-550.##Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency: Implications for bilingual education and the optimal age issue. TESOL Quarterly, 14(3), 175- 187.##Corno, L. (2001). Volitional aspects of self-regulated learning. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives (2nd Ed., pp.191–226). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.##Correia. R. (2006). Encouraging critical reading in the EFL classroom. English Teaching Forum, 9(1), 16-20.##Davis, S. G., & Gray, E. S. (2007). Going beyond test-taking strategies: Building self-regulated students and teachers. Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 1(1), 31-47.##Facione, N. C., & Facione, P. A. (1996). Externalizing the critical thinking in knowledge development and clinical judgment. Nursing Outlook, 44(3), 129-136.##Ferreira, P. C., & Simão, A. M. V. (2012). Teaching practices that foster self-regulated learning: A case study. Educational Research eJournal, 1(1), 1-16.##Finkbeiner, C. (2005). Interests and strategies in foreign language reading: How pupils read and comprehend English texts. Tubingen: Narr.##Finkbeiner, C., Knierim, M., Smasal, M., & Ludwig, P. H. (2012). Self-regulated cooperative EFL reading tasks: Students’ strategy use and teachers’ support. Language Awareness, 21(1–2), 57–83.##Fulcher, G. & Davidson, F. (2007). Language testing and assessment. London: Routledge.##Goldfarb, R. L., & Johnson, B. E. (1992). CLAST preparation guide (3rd ed.). Lincoln, NE: Cliffs Notes.##Grabe, W. (1997, May). Teaching L2 reading: Moving from theory to practice. Paper presented at TESOL Academy, Seattle University: Seattle, WA.##Hashemi, L. & Thomas, B. (1996). Cambridge practice tests for PET 1 student’s book. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Housand, A., & Reis, S. M. (2008). Self-regulated learning in reading: Gifted pedagogy and instructional settings. Journal of Advanced Academics, 20, 108–136.##Huijie, L. (2007). An exploratory study of assessing EFL critical reading abilities: from specification to implementation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai.##Huijie, L. (2010). Developing a hierarchical framework of critical reading proficiency. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 33(6), 40-54.##James, Ph. L. (2012). Developing self-regulated readers. Unpublished master’ thesis. California State University, California.##Karlin, R. (1971). Teaching elementary reading: Principles and strategies. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.##Kobayashi, K. (2007). The influence of critical reading orientation of external strategy use during expository text. Reading Educational Psychology, 27(3) 363-375.##Kuiper, R. (2002). Enhancing metacognition through the reflective use of self-regulated learning strategies. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 33(2), 78-87.##Lynch, R., & Dembo, M.(2004). The relationship between self-regulation and online learning in a blended learning context. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 5(2), 1-14.##Maftoon, P., & Tasnimi, M. (2014). Using self-regulation to enhance EFL learners’ reading comprehension. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(4), 844-855.##Mbato, C. L. (2013). Facilitating EFL learners' self-regulation in reading: Implementing a metacognitive approach in an Indonesian higher education context. Unpublished Master’s thesis. Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW.##McLeod, B., & McLaughlin, B. (1986). Restructuring or automatic reading in a foreign language. Language Learning, 36(2), 109-123.##Milan, D. (1995). Developing reading skills. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.##Molenaar, I., van Boxtel, C. A. M., & Sleegers, P. J. C. (2010).The effects of scaffolding metacognitive activities in small groups. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1727–1738.##Moos, D. C., & Ringdal, A. (2012). Self-regulated learning in the classroom: A literature review on the teacher’s role. Education Research International, 1-15.##Mori, S. (2004). Significant motivational predictors of the amount reading by EFL learners in Japan. RELC, 35(1), 63-81.##Nash-Ditzel, S. (2010). Metacognitive reading strategies can improve self-regulation. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 40(2), 45-63.##Panadero, E., & Alonso-Tapia, J. (2014). How do students self-regulate? Review of Zimmerman’s cyclical model of self-regulated learning. Anales de Psicología, 30(2), 450-462.##Paris, S., & Paris, A. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 36 (2), 89-101.##Phan, H. P. (2010). Critical thinking as a self-regulated process component in teaching and learning. Psicothema, 22(2), 284-292.##Philips, A. N., & Sotiriou, P. (1992). Steps to reading proficiency. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.##Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college students. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 385–407.##Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and predictive validity and reliability of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 801–813.##Pintrich, P. R., & Zusho, A. (2007). Student motivation and self-regulated learning in the college classroom. In R. P. Perry & J. C. Smart (Eds.), The scholarship of teaching and learning in higher education: An evidence-based perspective (pp. 731–810). New York: Springer.##Postman, R. D. (2009). Barron’s CLAST (3rd Ed.). Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Series, Inc.##Pratontep, C., & Chinwonno, A.(2008). Self-regulated learning by Thai university students in an EFL extensive reading program.MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, 11(2), 104-124.##Rheinheimer, D. C., & Penfield, D. A. (2001). The effects of type I error rate and power of the ANCOVA F test and selected alternatives under non-normality and variance heterogeneity. Journal of Experimental Education, 69(4), 373–391.##Ruohotie, P. (2002). Motivation and self-regulation in learning. In H. Niemi & P. Ruohotie (Eds.), Theoretical understandings for learning in the virtual university, (pp. 37-72). Research Centre for Vocational Education, University of Tampere.##Schunk, D. H. (1989). Self-efficacy and cognitive skill learning. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education: Vol. 3. Goals and cognitions (pp. 13-44). San Diego: Academic.##Schunk, D. H., & Rice, J. M. (1987). Enhancing comprehension skill and self-efficacy with strategy value information. Journal of Reading Behavior, 19, 285–302.##Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Social origins of self-regulated competence. Educational Psychologist, 32, 195-208.##Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2007). Influencing children’s self-efficacy and self-regulation of reading and writing through modeling. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 23, 7-25.##Schwegler, R. (2004). Patterns of exposition (17th ed.). London: Person Education, Inc.##Souvignier, E., & Mokhlesgerami, J. (2006). Using self-regulation as a framework for implementing strategy instruction to foster reading comprehension. Learning and Instruction, 16(1), 57-71.##Taylor, L, & Weir, C. J. (2012, May, June). Automated approaches to establishing context validity in reading tests. Paper presented at the 9th EALTA Conference, Innsbruck: Austria.##Thistlethwaite, L.L. (1990). Critical reading for at-risk students. Journal of Reading, 33(8), 586-593.##Ustunluoglu, E. (2004). Language teaching through critical thinking and self-awareness. English Teaching Forum, 42, 2-7.##Varaprasad, C. (1997). Some classroom strategies: Developing critical literacy awareness. English Teaching Forum Online, 35(3), 24-37.##Wallace, C. (2003). Critical reading in language education. NY: Palgrave Macmillan.##Wegman, B., & Knezevic, M. (2007a). Mosaic 1 reading. (Silver edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.##Wegman, B., & Knezevic, M. (2007b). Mosaic 2 reading. (Silver edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.##Wolters, C. (2010). Self-regulated learning and the 21st century competencies. Paper prepared for the NRC Planning Meeting on 21st Century Competencies.##Wolters, C., Pintrich, P., & Karabenick, S. (2005). Assessing academic self-regulated learning. In K. Moore & L. Lippman (Eds.), What do children need to flourish? Conceptualizing and measuring indicators of positive development (pp. 251–270). New York, NY: Springer.##Woolley, G. (2011). Reading comprehension: Assisting children with learning difficulties. New York: Springer.##Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 329-39.##Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3-17.##Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation: An analysis of exemplary instructional models. In D. H.Schunk, & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice, (pp. 1-19). New York: Guilford Press.##Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social-cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation, (pp. 13–39). Academic Press, San Diego, Calif, USA.##Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41(2), 64-72.##Zimmerman, B. J., & Campillo, M. (2003). Motivating self-regulated problem solvers. In J. E. Davidson, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The nature of problem solving (pp. 233-263). New York: Cambridge University.##Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 23, 614-628.##Zimmerman, B. J., & Moylan, A. R. (2009). Self-regulation: Where metacognition and motivation intersect. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 299-315). New York: Routledge.##

1 انسان‌نمایی در فراگیری بهینه زبان بوسیله فناوری: آیا تاثیر معلم مجازی در آموزش اصطلاحات زبان دوم در محیط‌های چند رسانه‌ای برحسب انسان‌نما بودن معلم متفاوت است؟ On Anthropomorphism in Technology-Enhanced Language Learning: Does Modality Matter in Agent-Based Multimedia Instruction on L2 Idioms? https://jtls.shirazu.ac.ir/article_3782.html 10.22099/jtls.2016.3782 1 The present study aimed to satisfy a twofold purpose: On the one hand, it sought to verify the postulation that agent-based instruction could offer a compromise approach to teaching L2 idioms where form and meaning would be equally emphasized during instruction. Given that anthropomorphism has not been much under scrutiny, this research, on the other hand, sought to ascertain whether learning and retention of English idioms would be differentially impacted when two different modalities of virtual tutors —anthropomorphic and non-anthropomorphic— were present in the tutorial. To this aim, the participants of the study received instruction on 128 English idioms from human teachers, a multimedia application featuring a humanoid virtual teacher, or a piece of multimedia courseware with a non-anthropomorphic virtual tutor. Analysis of the post-intervention measures of L2 idiom knowledge revealed that agent-based instruction had proved more effective in improving both learning and retention of the target idioms among the participants. A further finding was that despite the greater motivational benefits of the humanoid virtual tutor, it had not privileged the participants, performance-wise. 0 تحقیق حاضر هدفی دو سویه را دنبال کرده است: از یک سو، تصدیق فرضیه‌ مدعی آموزش اصطلاحات زبان انگلیسی بوسیله معلم مجازی و از سوی دیگر، این فرضیه نیز که انسان‌نمایی، همچنین، می‌تواند با استفاده از معلم مجازی در امر آموزش تاثیرگذار باشد. جهت آزمایش فرضیات، شرکت‌کنندگان بوسیله معلم واقعی، یک معلم مجازی انسان‌نما و یا یک معلم مجازی غیر انسان نما به فراگیری 128 اصطلاح زبان انگلیسی مبادرت ورزیدند. بررسی عملکرد فراگیران بوسیله آزمون‌های سنجش دانش اصطلاحات زبان نشان داد که آموزش بوسیله معلم مجازی به مراتب بازدهی بیشتری نسبت به آموزش معلم واقعی داشته است. در عین حال، مشخص شد که علی‌رغم تاثیر بسزایی که معلم مجازی انسان‌نما در ایجاد انگیزه لازم در فراگیران جهت یادگیری اصطلاحات زبان انگلیسی داشته است، اثر آن بر فراگیری و به خاطر سپاری اصطلاحات در میان آنان چندان قابل ملاحظه نبوده است. 123 160 رحمان صحراگرد Rahman Sahragard Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Iran rsahragard@rose.shirazu.ac.ir علیرضا احمدی Alireza Ahmadi Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Iran arahmadi@shirazu.ac.ir حامد بابائی شلمانی Hamed Babaie Shalmani Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Iran babaie@iaurasht.ac.ir anthropomorphism cognitive load modality effect pedagogical agents redundancy effect Abel, B. (2003). English idioms in the first language and second language lexicon: A dual representation approach. Second Language Research, 19(4), 329-358.##Allen, L. K., Crossley, S. A., Snow, E. L., & McNamara, D. S. (2014). L2 writing practice: Game enjoyment as a key to engagement. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 124-150. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/june2014/allenetal.pdf##Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2005). The split-attention principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 135–147). UK: Cambridge University Press.##Babaie, H. (2008). On the effects of help options in MCALL programs on the listening comprehension of EFL learners. TELL Journal, 2(6), 27-47.##Boers, F., Demecheleer, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2004). Cross‐cultural variation as a variable in comprehending and remembering figurative idioms. European Journal of English Studies, 8(3), 375‐388.##Bryant, F. B., & Yarnold, P. R. (1995). Principal components analysis and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. In L. G. Grimm & R. R. Yarnold (Eds.), Reading and understanding multivariate statistics (pp. 99-136). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.##Cambridge University Press. (2013). Cambridge IELTS 9: Authentic examination papers from Cambridge ESOL. New York: Cambridge.##Cameron, L., & Low, G. (1999). Metaphor. Language Teaching, 32(1), 77-96.##Carlotto, T., & Jaques, P. A. (2016). The effects of animated pedagogical agents in an English-as-a-Foreign-Language learning environment. Journal of Human Computer Studies, 90,1-32.##Cassell, J., & Thorisson, K. (1999). The power of a nod and a glance: envelope vs. emotional feedback in animated conversational agents. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 13(4), 519- 538.##Chapelle, C., & Mizuno, S. (1989). Student’s strategies with learner-controlled CALL. CALICO Journal, 7(2), 25-47.##Chen, Y., C., & Lai, H., L. (2013). Teaching English idioms as metaphors through cognitive-oriented methods: A case in an EFL writing class. English Language Teaching, 6(6), 13-20.##Clarebout, G., Elen, J., Johnson, W. L., & Shaw, E. (2002). Animated pedagogical agents: An opportunity to be grasped? Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 77(3), 267-286.##Collentine, K. (2001). Learner autonomy in a task-based 3d world and production. Language Learning & Technology, 15(3), 50-67.##Corbeil, G. (2007). Using the French tutor multimedia package or a textbook to teach two French past tense verbs: Which approach is more effective? CALICO Journal, 24(2), 313-330. Retrieved from https://calico.org/html/article_647.pdf##Dai, J., Raine, B. R., Roscoe, R., Cai, Z., & McNamara, D. S. (2011). The Writing-Pal tutoring system: Development and design. Journal of Engineering and Computer Innovations, 2(1), 1-11.##Duffy, M. C., & Azevedo, R. (2015). Motivation matters: Interactions between achievement goals and agent scaffolding for self-regulated learning within an intelligent tutoring system. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 338-348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.041##Dunsworth, Q., & Atkinson, R. K. (2007). Fostering multimedia learning of science: Exploring the role of an animated agent’s image. Computers and Education, 49(3), 677-690.##Ergül, E., & Koç, M. (2013). The role of animated agents in web-based distance education. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 83, 1016-1022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.189##Graesser, A. C., Person, N., Harter, D. (2001). Teaching tactics and dialog in AutoTutor. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 12, 257-279.##Grant, L. E. (2003). A corpus-based investigation of idiomatic multiword units. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.##Gulz, A., & Haake, M. (2006). Design of animated pedagogical agents - A look at their look. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 64(4), 322-339.##Heidig, S., & Clarebout, G. (2011). Do pedagogical agents make a difference to student motivation and learning? A Review of Empirical Research. Educational Research Review, 6, 27-54.##Heift, T. (2007). Learner personas in CALL. CALICO Journal, 25(1), 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1558/cj.v25i1.1-10##Hongpaisanwiwat, C., & Lewis M. (2003) Attentional effect of animated character. In M. Rauterberg, M. Menozzi, & J. Wesson (Eds.), Human-computer interaction-INTERACT '03 (pp. 423-430). Nieuwe Hemweg, Amsterdam: IOS Press.##Johnson, A. M., Ozogul, G., & Reisslein, M. (2014). Supporting multimedia learning with visual signalling and animated pedagogical agent: moderating effects of prior knowledge. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 31(2), 97-115.##Johnson, J., & Rosano, T. (1993). Relation of cognitive style to metaphor interpretation and second language proficiency. Applied Psycholinguistics 14, 159-175.##Johnson, W. L., Rickel, J. W., & Lester, J. C. (2000). Animated pedagogical agents: Face-to-face interaction in interactive learning environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 41, 41-78.##Laborda, J. G. (2010). Contextual clues in Semi-direct interviews for computer assisted language testing. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 3591-3595.##Liew, T.-W., Tan, S.-M., & Jayothisa, C. (2013). The effects of peer-like and expert-like pedagogical agents on learners’ agent perceptions, task-related attitudes, and learning achievement. Educational Technology & Society, 16(4), 275–286.##Massaro, D. W., & Cohen, M. M. (1994). Visual, orthographic, phonological, and lexical influences in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 20, 1107-1128.##Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd Ed.). NY: Cambridge University Press.##Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998). A split-attention effect in multimedia learning: Evidence for dual processing systems in working memory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 312-320.##Moreno, R. (2006). Learning in high-tech and multimedia environments. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 63-67.##Nippold, M. A., & Duthie, J. K. (2003). Mental imagery and idiom comprehension: A comparison of school-age children and adults. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 788-799.##Noma, T., & Badler, N. I. (1997). A virtual human presenter. Proceedings of the IJCAI Workshop on Animated Interface Agents: Making Them Intelligent. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.##Ozogul, G., Johnson, A. M., Atkinson, R. K., & Reisslein, M. (2013). Investigating the impact of pedagogical agent gender matching and learner choice on learning outcomes and perceptions. Computers & Education, 67, 36-50.##Paivio, A., & Walsh, M. (1993). Psychological processes in metaphor comprehension and memory. In A. Ortony. (Ed.), Metaphor and thought (pp. 307-328). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Pallant, J. (2013). SPSS survival manual (5th Ed.). NY: Open University Press.##Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equation: How people treat computers, televisions, and new media like real people and places. University Press, Stanford, California.##Ryu, J., & Baylor, A. (2005). The psychometric structure of pedagogical agent persona. Tech., Inst., Cognition and Learning, 2, 291-314.##Sahimi, S. M., Zain, F. M., Kamar, N. A. N., Samar, N., Rhman, Z. A., Majid, O., Luan, W. S. (2010). The pedagogical agent in online learning: Effects of the degree of realism on achievement in terms of gender. Contemporary Educational Technology, 1(2), 175-185.##Sklar, E., & Richards, D. (2010). Agent-based systems for human learners. The Knowledge Engineering Review, 25(2), 1–25.##Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.##Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of cognitive load theory from multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 19-30). New York: Cambridge University Press.##Sweller, J. (2010). Element interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Educational Psychology Review, 22(2), 123-138.##Toyoda, E. (2001). Exercise of learner autonomy in project-oriented CALL. CALL-EJ Online, 2(2), Retrieved from http://callej.org/journal/2-2/toyoda.html##Van der Meij, H., van der Meij, J., & Harmsen, R. (2015). Animated pedagogical agents’ effects on enhancing student motivation and learning in a science inquiry learning environment. Education Tech Research Dev, 63, 381-403.##Vasiljevic, Z. (2015). Effects of etymology and pictorial support on the retention and recall of l2 idioms. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 12(1), 35-55.##Veletsianos, G., & Miller, C. (2008). Conversing with pedagogical agents: A phenomenological exploration of interacting with digital entities. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(6), 969-986.##Yılmaz, R., & Kılıç-Cakmak, E. (2012). Educational interface agents as social models to influence learner achievement, attitude and retention of learning. Computers & Education, 59, 828-838.##Yung, H. I., & Pass, F. (2015). Effects of cueing by a pedagogical agent in an instructional animation: A cognitive load approach. Educational Technology & Society, 18(3), 153-160.##

1 آسیب‌شناسی پیشرفت واژگانی ادراکی در زبان دوم: مطالعه موردی میکروژنتیک Diagnosing L2 Receptive Vocabulary Development Using Dynamic Assessment: A Microgenetic Study https://jtls.shirazu.ac.ir/article_3831.html 10.22099/jtls.2016.3831 1 The present study is an attempt to shed light on the effect of Dynamic Assessment (DA) on diagnosing and developing the receptive vocabulary abilities of upper-intermediate learners learning English as a foreign language. Fifty L2 leaners participated in the First Certificate in English test and completed Vocabulary Knowledge Scale. Out of 50 students, ten learners who were identified as being homogenous and were not familiar with the new vocabularies volunteered to participate in individualized tutoring sessions. Reading texts were used to make learners familiar with the target words and cloze passages were administered to assess learners’ receptive vocabulary. Mediation was provided using the interactionist approach to DA and learners’ responsiveness to mediation were studied in a microgenetic approach. The qualitative data were then coded in terms of task completion along with errors and struggles and transformed into quantitative data for analysis. The actual, mediated and transfer scores were reported to analyze learners’ Zone of Actual Development (ZAD), and the degree of the internalization of mediation. Findings of the study revealed that to have a complete picture of learners’ abilities, actual scores are not self-sufficient. Mediated scores are vital to diagnose learners’ areas of difficulties and to promote learners’ receptive vocabulary knowledge. The information from transfer scores also uncovers evidence of learning and data from Learning Potential Score (LPS) predict how learners probably respond to future instruction. Findings of the study indicate that DA is promising in presenting a fine-grained diagnosis of learners’ receptive vocabulary development while also suggesting information related to future teaching and learning. 0 مطالعه حاضر به بررسی ارزشیابی پویا در آسیب‌شناسی و بهبود توانایی ادراکی واژگان زبان‌آموزان سطح پیشرفته می‌پردازد. تعداد 50 نفر از زبان‌آموزانی که دارای اولین مدرک سطح متوسط دانشگاه کمبریج (FCE) بودند در آزمون سطح‌بندی دانش واژگان شرکت کردند. از میان این 50 نفر، 10 زبان‌آموز که دارای شرایط مشابه زبانی بودند و با واژگان جدید آشنایی نداشتند به صورت داوطلبانه در کلاس های انفرادی و خصوصی شرکت کردند. به منظور آشنایی زبان‌آموزان با واژگان جدید، متون خواندنی مورد استفاده قرار گرفت و برای ارزیابی واژگان ادراکی آنها متن پاسخ بسته به کار گرفته شد. تدریس بر مبنای رویکرد کنش متقابل در ارزیابی پویا انجام شد، و میزان پاسخگویی فراگیران بر اساس رویکرد میکروژنتیک مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. نتایج این بررسی نشان داد که برای دستیابی به تصویر کلی از توانایی‌های فراگیران صرفا نمره‌های کسب شده توسط آنها کافی نیستند. نمره‌های داده شده در ارزیابی حین تدریس برای عملکردهای تشخیصی و شناسایی حیطه های دشوار و بهبود دانش واژگان ادراکی زبان آموزان نقش بسزایی دارد. همچنین بررسی نمرات نشان داد که یادگیری همراه با نمره‌گذاری (LPS) می‌تواند واکنش احتمالی فراگیران نسبت به آموزش آینده را نیز پیش‌بینی کند. نتایج نشان می‌دهد که ارزیابی پویا نه تنها در ارائه شناخت دقیق پیشرفت واژگان ادراکی فراگیران موثر است بلکه می‌تواند اطلاعاتی را نیز در مورد آموزش و یادگیری آتی ارائه کند. 161 189 Abdullah sarani Abdullah sarani University of Sistan and Baluchestan Iran sarani_ling@hamoon.usb.ac.ir - - Mehri Izadi Chabahar Maritime University Iran izadimi@yahoo.com dynamic assessment mediation ZPD transfer Vocabulary development Ableeva, R. (2010). Dynamic assessment of listening comprehension in L2 French (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The Pennsylvania State University. University Park, PA.##Alderson, J. C., Brunfaut, T., & Harding, L. (2014). Towards a theory of diagnosis in second and foreign language assessment: Insights from professional practice across diverse fields. Applied Linguistics, 36(2), 236-260.##Alony, S., & Kozulin, A. (2007). Dynamic assessment of receptive language in children with Down syndrome. International Journal of Speech-language Pathology, 9(4), 323-331.##Bengeleil, N. F., & Paribakht, T. S. (2004). L2 reading proficiency and lexical inferencing by university EFL learners. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 61(2), 225-249.##Budoff, M. (1987). The validity of learning potential assessment. In C.S. Lidz (Ed.), Dynamic assessment: An interactional approach to evaluating learning potential (pp. 53–81). New York: Guilford Press.##Burton, V. J., & Watkins, R. V. (2007). Measuring word learning: Dynamic versus static assessment of kindergarten vocabulary. Journal of Communication Disorders, 40(5), 335-356.##Cambridge English Language Assessment Center (2013). Principles of good practice: Quality management and validation in language assessment. Retrieved from http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/research-and-validation/quality-and-accountability/##Campione, J., & Brown, A. (1987). Linking dynamic assessment with school achievement. In C. S. Lidz (Ed.), Dynamic assessment: An international approach to evaluating learning potential (pp. 82–115). New York: The Guilford Press.##Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., & Hoffman, M., B. (1979). The dynamic assessment of retarded performers: The learning potential assessment device, theory, instruments, and techniques. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.##Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., & Rynders, J., E. (1988). Don’t accept me as I am. Helping retarded performers excel. New York: Plenum.##Kapantzoglou, M., Restrepo, M., A., & Thompson, M. S. (2012). Dynamic assessment of word learning skills: Identifying language impairment in bilingual children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 43(1), 81-96.##Kozulin, A., & E. Garb. (2002). Dynamic assessment of EFL text comprehension of at risk students. School Psychology International, 23(1), 112-127.##Kunnan, A., J., & Jang, E., E. (2009). Diagnostic feedback in language assessment. In M. H. Long & C. J. Doughty (Eds.), The handbook of language teaching (pp. 610–627). Malden, MA: Blackwell.##Luria, A. R. (1961). Study of the abnormal child. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry: A Journal of Human Behavior, 31, 1–16.##Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teaching and Linguistics, 13(4), 221-246.##Poehner, M. E. (2005). Dynamic assessment of oral proficiency among advanced L2 learners of French (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The Pennsylvania State University. University Park, PA.##Poehner, M. E., & Lantolf, J. P. (2005). Dynamic assessment in the language classroom. Language Teaching Research, 9(3), 233-265.##Poehner, M. E., & Lantolf, J. P. (2013). Bringing the ZPD into the equation: Capturing L2 development during computerized dynamic assessment. Language Teaching Research, 17(3), 323–342.##Poehner, M. E., Zhang, J., & Lu, X. (2015). Computerized dynamic assessment (C-DA): Diagnosing L2 development according to learner responsiveness to mediation. Language Testing, 32(3), 337-357.##Schmitt, N. (2000).Vocabulary in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.##Shabani, K. (2014). The Effects of computerized instruction of vocabulary through hypertexts on L2 learners’ cognitive functioning. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 149, 868-873.##Sternberg, R., & Grigorenko, E. (2001). All testing is dynamic testing. Issues in Education, 7, 137–170.##Taghizadeh, M., & Bahrami, V. (2014). Dynamic assessment of Iranian EFL learners’ lexical inferencing ability: The interactionist approach. IJLLALW, 5(4), 310-321.##Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. In R. W. Rieber & A. S. Carton (Eds.): The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky, vol. 1: Problems of general psychology (pp. 37-285). New York: Plenum.##Wolter, J. A., & Pike, K. (2015). Dynamic assessment of morphological awareness and third-grade literacy success. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 46(2), 112-126.##Wesche, M., & Paribakht, T., S. (1996). Assessing second language vocabulary knowledge: Depth versus breadth. Canadian Modern Language Review, 53(1), 13-40.##